'c93 METHODS 

Copy 1 



TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 



NOTES OF LESSONS, 



PRINTED AT THE REQUEST OF THE TEACHERS 
IN ATTENDANCE. 



BOSTON, MASS. 

BOSTON SCHOOL SUPPLY COMPANY 

15 Bromfikld Street. 

18 8 3. 



\- 



^ 



0\ 



D METHODS 



TEACHING GEOaRAPHY. 



NOTES OF LESSONS. 



A ^ 



PRINTED AT THE REQUEST OF THE TEACHERS 
IN ATTENDANCE. 




BOSTON, MASS. 

BOSTON SCHOOL SUPPLY COMPANY, 

16 Bromfield Street. 

1883. 



Copyright, 1883, 
Bt Lucretia Crocker. 



'Vv 






Press of RocK^rELL and Churchill, 39 Arch Street. 



INTKODUCTORY, 



The inquiry laliy we teach geography naturally precedes 
the consideration of hoio we ought to teach it. 

May we not assume that our main purpose is to give our 
pupils a real knowledge of the earth on which they live? 
We wish to lead them to perceive its wonderful adaptation 
to the wants of man ; its resources for food, clothing, 
shelter, and for the arts and industries of civilized society. 
They should catch glimpses of its marvellous beauty and 
grandeur ; and should find the close relations that exist be- 
tween physical conditions and the life of different nations. 

As teachers of geograph}^ we shall draw upon our largest 
resources in natural and physical science, in general histor}^, 
and in art and literature. However elementary our instruc- 
tion, we shall need a wide range of knowledge, as we travel, 
in imagination, with our pupils, over the broad earth ; help- 
ing them to see phases of nature and of life, on sea and land, 
in hot and cold countries, on mountains and deserts, and 
among untutored and civilized people. 

Geography, well taught, is an educational stud}'', cultivat- 
ing the imagination and judgment, as well as the memory ; 
training the mind in both observation and language. Perhaps 
no other branch in the grammar-school curriculum gives 
opportunity for culture in so many directions. And there 
is no subject taught in which it is more necessary for the 
teacher to be independent of the text-book, especially in the 
arrangement of lessons, and in the apportionment of time, 



\ 



4 INTRODUCTORY. 

according to the relative importance of the parts of the 
subject. 

Text-books of geography must give more names, statistics, 
and facts than we wish to keep in our minds, or to have our 
pupils learn. They are, in a sense, reference books ; correct, 
for the time, in mau}^ statements that will be untrue before 
the children of to-day take our places. We should not, then, 
cumber their memories with what may prove worse than use- 
less rubbish, because not so easily disposed of. 

Are we, then, to discard text-books ? Certainly not ; but we 
are to make them our helpers, not our guides. Are we to 
dispense with memory-work for our pupils ? Certainh' not. 
We must have it, or our teaching will fail in results. But 
we must put life and color into the dry facts of our text- 
books, and give, for the memory-lessons, only intelligent 
summaries of the valuable points of the instruction. 

Are we to require the study of map-questions ? Assuredly ; 
but not the learning of a catalogue of names. Has there 
been any real addition to geographical knowledge when 
pupils have learned to repeat names with which they have 
no other associations than the places they occupy upon the 
map? 

Are we to have definitions accurately stated ? Certainly ; 
but only when the thing to be defined, and the language that 
expresses the definition, are clearly comprehended. 

Are we to have question and answer, or topical recitations? 
Surely both have a place. During the presentation of new 
points the Socratic method is the true one. The teacher must 
excite mental activity in the class by skilful questioning. The 
children must be led to think, to examine, and to express the 
results of their study. The teacher should tell them nothing they 
can naturally find out for themselves; but their earnest study 
should be supplemented by bits of information, vivid descrip- 
tions, and other illustrations, given by the teacher, in their 
proper connection . This, and this alone, is true oral instruction^ 



-INTRODUCTORY-. 5 

the direction of the mental activity of the pupils. After this 
come the memory-lessons ; the definitions ; and, finally, the 
reprodncing of the different points of the geograj^hy of any 
country, by topical recitations. These should be the inde- 
pendent efforts of the pupils, expressed in their own lan- 
guage. 

In the process of instruction a geographical vocabulary is 
formed. This should be fully grasped in both its spoken and 
its written forms. Hard words for children, perhaps we say. 
But do not children, like unlettered adults, seek the long words, 
and do they not insist upon having the right name for every 
new thing ? The}' should have the habit of taking each new 
word through the eye, as well as the ear, and thus a geo- 
graphical vocabulary, correct in spelling and pronunciation, 
will have a natural and gradual growth. 

We come finally to the question of reviews. Must not 
the main points of the last lesson be gathered up before pro- 
ceeding to the next in order? And is there not need of a 
careful review whenever the instruction on any topic or sub- 
ject is completed, before passing to the next? Are not the 
best reviews often given incidentally, whenever points of 
previous instruction are referred to? Is not the application 
of knowledge previously acquired alwa3's its surest test? 
In this way only do pupils appreciate the need of recovering 
lost knowledge. Let us have reviews, frequent and thoroiigh^ 
without dull repetition, by putting the old facts or inferences 
into new connections ; and, by showing the need of informa- 
tion, give the incentive to acquire it. Let our pupils, while 
taking new steps, find their dependence upon steps pre- 
viously taken. 

It is of great importance to have the course of study con- 
tinuous and progressive, though our pupils must pursue it 
under the care of different teachers. Thus only can the best 
geographical results be secured in graded schools. Let 
us, then, so far as is possible in four hours, consider 
1* 



INTRODUCTORY. 



methods of carryiDg out the outline course of study, in 
successive classes, in its three departments of physical, civil, 
and astronomical geography. 



The notes which are here given indicate the arrangement 
and method followed ; but no attempt has been made to 
reproduce the lessons in full. 



PREPARATION FOR THE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY 
IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 



I. Lessons on Place (including Relative Position, Distance, 
and Direction). 

1. (a) To illustrate the use of the prepositions of 
place ; as o?i, above ^ before^ between^ under ^ 
below, behind, around^ etc. 

Method, 
By placing objects. 

The teacher places the pupil imitates. 

The teacher places the pupil describes. 

The teacher dictates the pupil places. 

The teacher disarranges the pupil replaces from memory. 

(5) To illustrate the use of the terms, right, left, 
middle, centre, corner, etc. 

Lessons as above. 
Right-hand corner 
Left-hand corner 
Front right-hand corner 
Back left-hand corner 
Middle of right side, etc 



of table or desk. 



(c) Representations by the pupils of the relative 
position of objects on table or desk. 

2. («) To show the necessity for a standard of dis- 
tance. 



8 METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 

(6) Measurements in the school-room : inch, foot, 
3^ard ; meter, dechneter, centiiiieter. 

(c) Representations on a scale, of the top of a desk 
or table, and of the floor, with the places of 
a few objects designated. 

Thus far Primary-School work, and these lessons lead 
directly to the preparation for the use of maps. 

II. Lessons on Plants and Animals. 

That live on the land; in the water; fly through the 

air. 
That have their home in hot parts of the earth ; in 
cold parts; in forests; in plains and deserts; on 
mountains. 
Most of the children have seen the animals that usually 
belong to a menagerie or circus, and know that many of them 
are brought across the great ocean from other lands. 

III. Stories and reading-lessons about people vrho live far 

away. 

In what kind of homes? What they eat? 

What they wear ? What they do ? 

What animals they use? 

The friends of many of the children have been far away 
by sea or land. 

IV. General knowledge gained by most children before 

entering the Grammar Schools. 

1 . Of kmd and ivater. 

Of the uses of each (for living, travelling, food- 
products, etc.). 

Of different modes of travelling (transportation). 

Of different occupations of people (familiar and un- 
familiar) . 



METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 9 

Of different people and their ways of living (manners 

and customs) . 
Of different natoral features (hill, pond, and island). 

2. Of air all around, over land and water (atmosphere) . 
Of a draught of air (wind) . 

Of the quick drying of mud, clothes, etc., in a warm 

air ; in a windy day. 
Of the different forms of water (fog, clouds, rain, 

snow, hail). 

3. Of the sun as giving light and heat. 

Of the sun, moon, and stars, as far away. 
Of divisions of Time : — day, night, week, month, 
year, spring, summer, autumn, winter. 

4. Of the terms circle, circumference, diameter, sphere, 

hemisphere (from drawing and form lessons) . 



BEGINNINGS IN GEOGRAPHY. 



A PLAN OF WORK, BASED ON THE PRELIMINARY KNOWLEDGE 
BROUGHT FROM THE PRI3IARY SCHOOLS. 

As the children have already a notion of land and water ; 
of people living far away ; of hot climates where oranges and 
bnnanas grow, and where lions and tigers live ; and of cold 
climates where the fur-bearing animals ?.re found ; it seems 
desirable to lead them at once to think of geography as the 
study by which they are to learn about the great world on 
which they live, and over which people travel either for 
business or pleasure. 

A few introductory lessons, that appeal to the imagination 
of the children, and excite interest by calling out whatever 
knowledge they may have, will present to them the idea of 
the whole earth, before taking up the study of topography, 
which should, of course, begin with the immediate surround- 
ings ; taking first whatever natural features are best known, 
and leading out to the stud}' of the various forms of land and 
water. 

The geographical vocabulary, spoken and written, should 
be formed as new w^ords are introduced. 

I. Lead pupils to a childlike conception of the earth as a 
great ball 

moving in the air, 
lighted by the sun, 
with a surface of land and water. 
(Address their imaginations, making " word-pictures.") 



METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 11 

Illustrations : — A ball tossed into the air. — A balloon in the 
air. — Birds in the air everywhere. — Boys in other places 
flying kites. — Air all over the round earth. — A picture of a 
globe floating in air. 

The evening star, another earth. 
The moon, a small earth. 
Illustrations of shape. — Beads, marbles, balls, oranges, and tlie 
globe, for form only, not for shapes of land and water until prep- 
aration for the use of maps has been made. — Alike in shape, — 
different in size. 
Illustration of the flat appearance. — Horizon. 
Illustration of size. — If a horse-car track could go around the 
earth ; time to ride around once ; more than half a year going 
night and day. 
Illustration of the two motions. — Let one pupil stand for the 
sun ; another pupil carry the globe round him, rotating it all 
the time. 
Results. — Day and night. A year. (Sufficient for this stage of 
the study.) 

Teach 

Axis — real and imaginary. Hot parts, as related to equa- 

Poles of the axis. tor. 

Circumference — diameter. Cold parts, as related to poles. 

Equator, as related to poles. Temperate parts, as between 

(Illustrations — A ball and a hot and cold parts. 

knitting-needle — A spin- Climate, as name for kind of 

ning-top.) weather. 

II. Teach the natural features of the surface. 
Begin with the most familiar. 

"1. Observe. 2. Name. 3. Describe." 
Aids to teaching. — Pictures ; blackboard illustrations ; 
mouldino; board. "Our World" No. 1. 



Forms of Land. 

Island. 

{beach. Peninsula, 

cliffs. Istlimus. 

bluffs. Cape. 

Continent. Promontory, 



13 



METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 



Hill 

and 

Mountain 



summit. 

slopes. 

base. 

peaks. 

chain. 

system. 



Volcano 



r crater. 



\ lava. 
Table-land. 

Valley. 

{Forest. 
Prairie. 
Desert : oasii 



Water. 

(The great salt ocean flowing around and between the con- 
tinents. 
Fresh waters flowing through the land. 



Forms of water. 

Springs, — Brooks, — Rivers, — Lakes, 

{Pure water. f Branches. 

Mineral. Source. 

Hot. Current. 

Geysers. -i Mouth. 



How formed ? 



Banks. 
Waterfalls. 

[Uses. 

Sea, — Gulf, — Bay, — Harbor, — Strait, — Channel, — Sound. 



III. — Lessons in connection with the study of the natural 
features. 



What the earth affords on its land- surface 

Vegetation. 
For food and drink (agriculture). For food< 



For clothing (manufactures). 

For fuel. 

For medicine. 

For building-material (lumbering). 

For oils and dyes. 

For utensils. 



Animals. 

live-stock, 
grazing. 
( furs. 



For clothing -j skins. 

( leather. 
For labor. 

For utensils {j;;j; 



METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 13 

Some specially useful plants. Specially useful animals. 

Cotton-plant. Palms. Horse. Dog. 

Sugar-cane. Bamboo. Cow. Sheep. 

Rice. Coifee-plant. Reindeer. Goat. 

Grape-vine. Tea-plant. Camel. Silkworm. 

Fruits of hot climates. 

Fruits of our climate. 

What the earth affords under its land-surface : — 



Building stones (quarrying). 
Metals, ") 

Coal, I raining — manufactures. 
Salt, J 



What the water affords : — 

Fish (fisheries). Sea-weed. 

Shell-fish. Salt. 

Whales (whale-ships, oil, Pearls. 

whalebone). Coral (reefs- — islands). 

Sponge. 

Principal occupations of the people of the earth in- 
cluded in these lessons. 

On the Atmosphere. 

Air necessary to life — (illustrations). 
Air in motion — (wind). 

Moisture in the air — visible — invisible — evaporated — 
condensed, — (familiar illustrations). 

IV. Introduction of Maps. 

1. (a) Review Primary-school lessons on Position, 
Distance, Direction. 
(6) Show the necessity for a standard of direction, 

1. Tell a pupil to walk to tlie right, then tu7'n and Avalk to 
the right. 
(Thus show that he may walk to the right and reach 
opposite points of the room.) 



14 METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 

2. Pass from the relative terms, right, left, etc., to the abso- 
lute terms, north, south, east, west. 

Children facing the sun at noon — look south. Their 
shadows — fall north. 

Facing the sunset — look toward the west. 

Facing the sunrise — look toward the east. 

(c.) Show compass — mark' lines of direction on 
floor. Practical exercises to teach N., E., 
S., W., N.E., S.E., N.W., S.W. 
• Children walk, point, tell the direction of objects. 
Children find the directions of other class-rooms ; of other 

places from the school-house. 
Tell how to go to their homes, give the directions. 

(d) Representations on slates, keeping points of 

compass. (Table-top, floor.) 

(e) Study a good plan (map) of the immediate 

vicinity, drawn on the black-board. 

Take imaginary walks on it. Settles doubts by actual obser- 
vation. 

2. (a) Stiidj^ a map of Boston, or of a part of Boston. 

A stranger would like it — Avhy? 
Show where the surrounding towns are. 
Describe places of interest. 

(b) Children find the scale of the map ; find dis- 
tances. 

3. (a) Why we need maps? How the first maps were 

made? Difference between picture and map. 

(b) Children draw from the moulded form a repre- 

sentation of coast line, with bay, cape, pen- 
insula, island, etc. 

(c) Show an outline map of a continent (one without 

names preferable). 
Children learn to read the map symbols for 
mountains, rivers, etc. 



METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 15 

(d) Children find the natural features on maps of 

other continents or grand divisions. 

(e) Find corresponding maps in their geographies. 
Compare scales. Compare scales of maps of 

the grand divisions. 
(/) Find corresponding maps on the globe ; find 

relative position and size. 
(g) Pass from globe to maps of hemispheres (half 

the surface of a globe represented on a flat 

surface ; illustrate) . 

V. General Study of the Maps of Hemispheres : — 

The Continents or grand divisions. 

Their names — number — relative position and size. 
The Oceans. 

Pacific — largest, many islands { ^oral"^^' 

Atlantic — best known, most travelled, many gulfs and bays. 

Indian -warm, small { S^' 'gpP'^'^ge: 

Arctic and Antarctic {^°^^;^j;"^^^^^«' ^^^^«' ^^^^^^S^' '^^- 

Islands. 

{coffee, 
spices, 
gums, 
f fruits, 

West Indies — hot climate ] ^^^*' 

I cigars,- 

1^ sugar. 
Iceland — volcano, geysers. 

Sandwich Islands — warm climate, much trade, in mid-ocean. 
Azores — fine climate, in mid-ocean. 
British Islands — (with Europe). 
Japan Islands — (with Asia). 
Newfoundland — (with North America). 



Children like the strange and wonderful, are interested in 
the people and products of other lands ; therefore it is well 
to take early the striking differences in nature and in the 



16 METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 

people of the earth, before beginning the study of the coun- 
tries of the grand divisions in order. 

" The Seven Little Sisters " and the companion volume 
"Each and All" will furnish collateral reading. 

Pictures, black-board illustrations, vivid descriptions, speci- 
mens of products, etc., will be of great service. 



VI. General Study of the Grand Divisions. 

Position on the globe. 

CHniate — where hot, cold, temperate ? 
Relative Position and Size. 

Refer to globe and maps of hemispheres. 
Surrounding Oceans. 
' Form and Outline (character of coast). 

Chief projections and indentations. 

Study of outline by tracing or drawing, not from memory. 
Mountain Systems. 

Comparative height. 

Direction of Slopes (Drainage). 

Plateaus — Valleys — Plains. 

Indicate mountains on the outline map. 
Rivers and Lakes (principal ones only). 

Source ; mouth, or outlet. 

Relative length or size. 

Indicate rivers and lakes on the outline map. 
Most valuable productions — where ? 
The important countries and their people. 
A few Avell-known cities. 
L Specially interesting localities. 



Special points for North America. 

Greenland (for a cold country) } ^f '^'""'J^J', " , „ 

^ "^ { Story of " Agoonack. 

British America. — Forests, furs, hunters, trappers. 

f Middle part. 
Temperate climate. 
Many productions. 
l^Iexico. — Hot, unhealtliful coast-line — high, pleasant tabh 
lands — cattle-raising, prickly pear, cochineal. 



METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 17 

For South America. 

Hot, forest lands, trees, animals, products, story of "The 

Little Brown Baby." 
Grassy plains, cattle — Andes region, mines, earthquakes, 

volcanoes — Patagonia, dreary country, savages. 

For Europe. 

Many civilized nations. 
Many occupations. 

Many colonies sent to many parts of the world. 
Mountain and river scenery. 
Climate and products of different parts. 
Interesting cities. 

Stories of " The Little Mountain Maiden" and of ** The Child 
of the beautiful river Ehine." 

For Asia. 

The largest grand division — all climates. 

Highest mountains. 

Siberia — cold, furs, forests, rivers. 

Palestine or Holy Land. 

Arabs, Chinese, Japanese, Hindoos. 

Special animals and vegetation. 

Story of " Pen-Se." 

For Africa. 

The least civilized of the grand divisions. 

Climate mostly hot — Sahara, caravans. 

Nile — overflow, pyramids. 

Negro tribes. Lion, elephant, giraffe, etc. Palms, indigo, 

etc. 
Stories of " Gemila " and " Mahenko." 

For Australia. 

Hot climate — droughts. 
Gold, wool, queer animals and plants. 
2* 



METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 



O 


Chinese, 

Japanese, 

Arabs, 

Hindoos, 

Turks, 

English, 

Russians. 


o 

O 
1=) 

1 


a 

'S 


Tiger, 

Elephant, 

Serpents, 

Camel, 

Silk-worm, 

Goat, 

Fur-bearing. 


1 
> 


■ 
Rice, 
Cotton, 
Indigo, 
Bamboo, 
Tea, 
Coffee, 
Jungles, 
Pine forests. 


2 


Gold, 
Silver, 
Iron, 
Precious 
Stones. 


C 
c3 


Ganges, 
Indus, 
Euphrates, 
Yang tse 

Kiang, 
Hoang Ho. 
Yenesei. 
Not many 

lakes. 


CD 

3 

3 
§ 
1^ 


Highest. 
Run from 

E. to W. 
Himalaya, 
Altai, 
Ural. 


1 

a 
5 


All climates. 
Very hot. 
Very cold. 


1 
1 


Old World, 
Northern 
Hemi- 
sphere. 


0Q.2 

2 


1 


c 
1- 


1 

> 

s 


4 

m 



^ M f^ l-> O -3 



2 o:^ ., 



C5c/Q 



So 5/) r- _5 .3 



00 73 



be 



C3 









2-^ ^: 

2 o ^ 

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METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 19 

The children are now prepared to take up such study of 
the countries of each grand division as is adapted to their 
age. 

VII. Method of Study for the Countries of a Grand Division, 

Example. — A plan for the study of New England. 

1. Preparation implied. 

America — the New World — how discovered? 
West Indies — why so called? 
First settlements in South and North America. 
(First chapters in " Stories of American History," as col- 
lateral reading.) 
Appearance of our country when discovered. 
Indians — European colonies. 
The United States — how formed? 
The thirteen original States — where? 
Present extent of the United States. 
General study of the United States. 
New England — in what part of the United States? 
What mountain system crosses it? 

2. Take map of New England. 

Have the moulded form, showing direction of moun- 
tains slopes, drainage, rivers, and lakes. 

Why called New England? 
Names of the six States. 
Coast line, articulation of. 
Other boundaries. 
Mountains. 

Two main ranges — highest peak, summits, 
slopes, trees, scenery, rock quarries — "Gran- 
ite State." 
Drainage. 

Valleys, rivers (rapid currents useful for?), 
lakes. 
Climate. 
Different kinds of surface. 



20 METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGEAPHY. 

f quarrying. 
I lumbering. 

Different occupations of the people i ^ ^"^^' 

^ commerce. 

! manufactures. 

[ farming. 

Where the good places for cities? 



1,. , ., , . ("manufactures. 

Find the most impor- ,^^,,^^,,3 ^„^ ^rade. 
tant cities noted for \^^^-^^^^^^ 

Description of interesting localities, cities, etc. 



3. Map Drawing combined with study. 

Children now prepared for such study of the text-book as is 
desirable. Ready to seek information elsewhere. " Guyot's 
Introduction," as collateral reading. Pictures, specimens, etc. 

(Put no names on the map at first. Memory- 
drawing not required.) 

(a) Review study of outline. 

Draw the outline (on paper). 

Draw boundaries between the States. 

(6) Review mountains. 

Indicate mountains on the outline map. 

(c) Review rivers and lakes. 

Indicate rivers and lakes on the map. 

(d) Review cities. 

Indicate cities on the map. 

(e) General Review. 

Put on the map, from memory, names of bays, capes, 
islands, mountain-ranges, rivers, lakes, and cities. 

4. Summary of knowledge gained to be given by the 

children, without questions, in the order of 
topics. 

Imaginary journeys described. 
Letters from different places. 



METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 21 

More or less time should be given to the sections of our 
own country, and to the other countries of the world, accord- 
ing to their relative importance. 

A few striking points, strong!}^ made, would be sufficient 
for the whole continent of Africa, in this first course. 

Example. 
1. — Africa. 

Thorough training with the use of maps as to the 
position of Africa and its relation to other grand divis- 
ions. Regular coast line, disadvantages of : — Moun- 
tains — Chains along the coast, the highest on the east. 
Atlas, Kong, Snow mountains. Rivers — Nile, flowing 
northward; Congo, Niger, Zambesi, and other rivers 
flowing into the Atlantic and Indian oceans. Divisions 
— Egypt, Ab3"ssinia, Barbary States, Sahara, Soudan, 
Guinea, Cape Colony. Cities — Cairo, Alexandria, Suez, 
Algiers, Cape Town. 

2. —North Africa. 

Atlas mountains along the northern coast ; hilly 
country on the borders of the torrid zone ; climate 
pleasant, nearly tropical. Date and gum trees, fragrant 
and medicinal plants ; lions, gazelles, hyenas, jackals. 
Exports — dates, nuts, oil, sponge. 

People not negroes, but Arabs, Moors, Turks — all 
Mohammedans — some civilized, living in cities ; others 
wandering Arabs, living in tents. 

Dress and customs of Mohammedans. Character- 
istics of Mohammedan cities — narrow streets, flat 
house-tops, mosques, etc. (Selections from Lane's 
"Modern Egyptians"; Bayard Taylor's "Lands of 
the Saracen.") 

Egypt — a narrow valley between the desert and the 
Red Sea. Suez canal. Tlie Nile — its course, overflow, 
delta. Cultivation of cotton, wheat, sugar-cane, etc. — 



22 METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 

Villages and palms along the river ; no forests ; pj^ramids 
and ruins along its lower course (mention of ancient 
histor}^) ; cities near the mouth. — (See "Egypt,." by 
Stanley Lane-Poole ; " Egypt and Nubia," by J. A. St. 
John.) 

3. — Sahara. 

The great desert — sandy levels, rocky ridges, oases, 
sand-storms ; Bedouins ; caravans coming and going 
between northern cities and towns of Soudan ; stories 
and pictures of desert life. 

4. — Almost Unexplored Region. ^ 

Great wilderness inhabited by uncivilized negro 
tribes, wearing little clothing, living in circular mud 
huts with thatched roofs ; occupation chiefly hunting 
and warfare. Rough earthen-ware, mats, etc. Some 
of the more advanced tribes make cotton cloth in small 
pieces, spears, anklets of iron and copper, and culti- 
vate patches of cotton, indigo, and millet. Manners 
and customs. Rivers with crocodiles and hippopotami. 
In the forests, elephants, lions, antelopes, giraffes, 
gorillas, apes, etc. — (See the works of Livingstone, 
Stanley, and other explorers.) 

5. — "West and East Coasts. 

Low, hot, tropical country ; rice, peanuts, castor-oil 
plant, and thick forests or jungle along the rivers. 
Native huts, and here and there small trading towns 
(Portuguese and English), where merchants exchange 
calico, guns, knives, beads, etc., for ivor}", ostrich 
feathers and beeswax, which the natives bring from the 
interior ; and for palm-oil, peanuts, rice, gold dust, etc., 
obtained on the coast. 

6. — Cape Colony. 

In possession of the English. Story of the discovery 
of the Cape. Dutch sheep-farmers inland — gold and 
diamond diggings. AVool the chief export. 



SECOND COUESE. 



The first course, for children, should be maiDly ob- 
servational and descriptive, with only such inferences in 
regard to physical influences as the children can be led to 
make from facts observed b}^ them or given to them. If this 
course creates an interest in the further study of the world, 
and gives, to those pupils who may not take a second course, 
a knowledge of the different natural features and products, 
and of the life of people in the different parts of the earth, 
the desired ends are accomplished. 

The second course should be more logical and sj^stematic, 
though, in both statements and illustrations, it should still be 
simple. 

As the climate of any part of the earth depends primarily 
on its solar heat, and as natural products and civilization 
depend mainly upon climate, it is important that this second 
course should be based upon the consideration of the earth's 
relations to the sun. 

I. The Form of the Earth. 

The ancient nations, living around the Mediterranean, 
believed that the earth was a great plain, surrounded by an 
ocean, from which the sun rose, and into which it set. The 
earliest maps and descriptions that have been preserved 
(about 500 B.C.) tell us this. 

Long before the time of Columbus, learned men beheved 
the form of the earth to be that of a globe ; but the belief was 
not general. 



24 METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 

Columbus thought he had reached India, when he found 
America ; and this fact shows that he had no conception of the 
size of the earth. 

Proofs of its Form. 

(a) Magellan's Voyage (1520). (<^) Horizon — The circle of 

(6) Vessels coming in sight — vision. Everywhere a circle, 

how seen? Horizon on a plain. 

Vessels going out of sight — Ascending a hill. 

how seen? (e) Shadow of the earth — eclipse 

Illustration — a toy ship on of the moon. 

a globe. Only a sphere can always 

Cause, curvature of the sur- " cast a circular shadow, 

face of the sea. Illustrate, 

(c) Sailors approaching land — (/) Spheroidal, not spherical, 

what first seen? - Difference in diameters. 



II. Size of the Earth. 

Circumference at the equator. 

Diameter at the equator. 

Diameter in direction of the axis. 

Illustration. — Time for railroad train to go round the circum- 
ference (25,000 miles.) — Kate, 30 miles an hour. — More 
than a month, making no stops. 

III. Latitude and Longitude. 

Means of fixing the position of places on the earth, 
necessary. 

Lessons with use of a globe. 

Eind Equator — where ? It is the circumference of a circle 

— where the centre of the circle ? — Avhere the plane of the 

circle ? 
(Accustom the pupils to the planes of circles before teaching 

the plane of the orbit. Cut apples to illustrate.) 
The Equator a great cii'cle. 
Find Parallels — why not great circles ? 
centres where ? 
planes where ? 



METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGEAPHT. 25 

Every circumference divided into 360 degrees. 
" '* measures four right angles. 

The length of degrees differs on tlie parallels. 

Parallels mark distances north and south of the Equator — 
called Latitude. 

What else needed to fix the position of a place ? 

No natural starting-place (or circle) from which to reckon dis- 
tance east and west. 

Different countries use different circles. 

They must be north and south circles. 

They must all pass through the poles. 

They mark the line of the mid-day shadow at any place — the 
north and south line. 

They are therefore called Meridians (from mid-day). 

Every place has such a line for mid-day shadows. 

Extended, it makes a circle passing through the poles. 

On the half opposite the place is the midnight line — or mid- 
day line for the place opposite. 

All the meridians are great circles — 
having their centres whei'e ? 
having their planes where ? 

How find the meridian of a place on a sunny day ? 

How can a sailor or traveller find the meridian of a place at 
any time ? 

How find the meridian on a starry night ? 

Where would a person standing on the north pole see the pole- 
star ? 

Where, if standing on the equator ? 

Whore do we see the pole-star ? 

How find the north and south points of the horizon from the 
pole-star ? 

Draw a semi-circle in the air to connect the north and south 
points of the horizon. 

It must pass through the zenilh. 

Observatories have such a visible north and south semi-circle, 
very carefully placed. Therefore such a circle is taken to 
reckon east and west distances from. 
One at Greenwich, England ; 
" Paris, France ; 
" Washington. 

We generally reckon from the English starting-point : 
3 



26 METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 

East and West distances, called Longitude. 180° East; 180^ 
West. 

North and South distances, called Latitude. 90° North ; 90° 
South. 

Why these terms? (They would not be selected now.) 

All places on the meridian of Greenwich have no Longitude, 
when that meridian is used as the First or Prime Meridian. 
Sailors, on the ocean, have to find their Latitude and Longi- 
tude (the place of their ship) by observing the sun. 

Give the class practice in finding Latitude and Longitude of 
certain places, and in finding places when Latitude and 
Longitude are given. 

Latitude, measured where? 

Longitude, measured where? 

Why degrees of Longitude vary in length? (Pupils discover.) 



IV. The Motions of the Earth — Effects. 

1. The round earth floats m space, as a balloon floats 

in the air. 
It is lighted by the sun. How? 

Illustration. — Hold a ball in the sunlight, or before a 
lighted lamp. 

However it is held, one-Jialf is lighted. 

The same is true of the earth. 
1st point. — Always a hemisphere lighted. 

If the ball and light are both motionless, the same hemi- 
sphere is always lighted. 

What efiects, if this were true of the earth? 

Turn the ball on its axis once. (Knitting-needle for axis.) 
2d point. — Observe the lighted hemisphere constantly 
changing. 

Why? 

2. Rotation. 

Then the turning of our earth on its axis gives us 

day and night. 
Evidences of the earth's rotation. 



METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 27 

Apparent daily movement of the heavenly bodies. 

Tllnstration / ^" ^ moYing railway car. 
inustration. I j^^^^j and apparent motion. 

The difference in the speed of rotation of different 

parts. 
Greatest speed at the equator — about 1,000 miles 

an hour. 
Speed decreasing toward the poles, 
(a) Let the axis of the ball (representing the Earth) 
be upright. 
Eotate and observe effect. 
Pupil put on a card-board disc, or day circle, to 

separate the light and dark hemispheres. 
It passes over the poles. 
Day and night everywhere alternately. 

(6) Let the axis be horizontal. Rotate. 

The day circle will correspond with the equator. 
The same hemisphere always liglited. 

(c) Let the axis be oblique. Rotate. 

The day circle neither passes over the poles nor 
corresponds with the equator. 

Around one pole, constant day. 

Around the other pole, constant night. 

Is any one of the three cases (a, b, c) true for our 
Earth? 

Then there is something more to find out yet. 

With the day circle or a black cap covering a hemi- 
sphere (" night cap"), and a wafer, on a ball or 
globe, illustrate sunrise — noon — sunset — mid- 
night — for some place. 

We say the sun rises when Boston turns into tlie 
sun's light. (Real and apparent motion.) 

Give practice in finding sunrise, etc., for different 
places on the ball. 

Does the sun rise and set in Boston at the same 
time all the year? 

Is the sun ever higher in the sk\', when you go from 
school at noon, than it is now? 

Let us find out tlie reason for these differences. 



28 METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 

3. Revolution. Changes of Seasons. 

(a) Who can tell about another movement of our 
Earth? 

We will give our ball the other movement. What 
are the names of the two poles of the earth's axis? 

If I call the .upper end of the hall's axis the North 
pole, what must I do? 

Place the ball Avith its axis pointed rightly and in- 
clined rightly, and with the nortli pole turned 
toward the light. Pupil put on a disc or cap, as 
before. 

How is the earth lighted now? 

Which pole is in sunshine? 

Can any one tell which of our seasons this repre- 
sents? 

(5) Cany the ball to the opposite side of the lamp 
(thus making a strong contrast in condi- 
tions) . 

Pupil arrange disc or cap now. 
How is the earth lighted now? 
Which of our seasons is represented? Why? 

(c) Cany the globe through the next quarter-revo- 
lution. 

Pupil arrange noAV for the lighted hemisphere. 
Tell how the earth is lighted now? 
Which of our seasons now? Why? 

{d) Complete the revolution. Restore the first con- 
ditions. Arrange and describe. Pass through 
the next quarter-revolution. Find conditions 
for our spring and for autumn in the other 
hemisphere. 

(e) Give sufficient practice to strengthen the points 
made. 

Let a pupil take the ball. Arrange and make the 
revolution. Class observe — tell. Finally have 
written descriptions. 



METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 29 

Summary. 

Then the changes of the seasons are caused by 
(1) the revolution of the earth around the 
sun ; (2) the inclination of the earth's axis ; 
and (3) the unyarj'ing direction of the axis. 
Any two of these causes, acting without 
the third, would not produce a change of 
seasons. 
Let pupils illustrate the action of tAvo conditions 
without the third. 

4. Variation in the length of day and night, 
(a) Introducing both motions of the ball. 

Draw the equator and the parallel of Boston. 
Pupils find which circle is exactly half-lighted, how- 
ever tlie disc is put on. 
What about the lighting of the parallel? 
Mark the place for Boston with a wafer. 

(5) Put the ball in position for the northern mid- 
summer. 

Show position for sunrise at Boston. 
Show where on the same parallel it is sunset. 
Mark this place with another wafer. 
Rotate the ball. 

Are these w^afers longer in the dark or in the light? 
What do you know then about day and night, on our 
parallel, at this time of the year? 

(c) With the ball in the same position, put a wafer 

on the part of the earth where Agoonack 
(the Esquimaux girl) Ha^cs. 
Tell about her day and season. 
Hold a crayon on the f^irthest point of the surfoce 

beyond the north pole that sunliglit reaches. 
Rotate. — Keep the crayon in position and let it 

draw a circle as the ball rotates. 
Rotate again. — Pupils watch and tell about the 

day of all places within this circle. 
3* 



30 METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 

(d) Hold a crayon on the centred point of the lighted 

hemisphere. 

Kotate. — Let the crayon draw a circle. 

Lead pupils to tell tliat all places on this circle have 

a vertical sun at noon. 
Rotate several times. — Pupils tell about length of 

day and night in different places. 

(e) Cany the earth through half a revolution. 

Pupils tell the conditions and seasons. Repeat the 
experiments and draw the corresponding circles 
in the southern hemisphere. 

Practice and reviews necessary. 

(/) Where did we draw the polar circles? 

Where did we draw the other two parallels ? 
Let us see upon what their places on the globe 
depend. 

Change the inclination of the axis. 

Rotate. — Pupils see that the places of these circles 

are changed. 
Then their places depend upon the slanting of the 

axis, 23^ degrees from the upright position. 
Remember that the axis inclines 23^ degrees, and that 

each pole points always in the same direction. 
Practice and reviews needed. 

(g) Place the ball in the intermediate positions for 
spring and autumn. 

Use day circle or cap as before. 

Lead pupils to see that one-half of each parallel is 

lighted. 
Rotate. — Lead pupils to infer that days and nights 

are equal everywhere (say nothing of the very 

poles). 
What season in each hemisphere? 

ill) Carr}^ the ball through a quarter-revolution 
slowly, rotating it all the time. 
Pupils notice and describe the gradual changes in 

season and length of day for either hemisphere. 
Practice and reviews. 



METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 31 

5. Tropics and Polar circles. 

The pupils are ready now to state — 

(1 ) That the tropics mark the limits of a vertical sun. 

Why called tropics'^ 

(2) That the polar circles mark the limits of the con- 

tinuance of da^dight for more than twenty- 
four hours. 

Lead the pupils to discover that the sun is overhead at 
the tropics, once each year. 
Overhead between the tropics, twice eacli year. 

" at the northern tropic at our midsummer. 
** ** southern tropic at our midwinter. 

" *' equator in spring and autumn. 

*' at all places betAveen equator and tropics at 
intermediate times. 

6. Orbit and Plane of Orbit. 

Place a circular piece of card-board around a globe or ball 
representing the sun. 

Hold a smaller ball (representing the earth) rightly, so that 
a hemisphere shall be above the card-board. 

Lead pupils to see that the centres of the two balls are 
in the ^:)?ang of the card-board, and that this plane might 
surround the earth as it does the sun, and extend ftir in 
all directions. 

Lead them to imagine an immense distance between the 
balls ; so that the space between the sun (the large ball) 
and the wall of the room behind it would be as nothing 
to any one on the earth (the small ball) looking at the 
sun. — Tlie sun would seem to such an observer to 
touch that wall, as a tree on the top of a distant hill 
seems to touch the sky behind it. 

Our sky seems like the inner surftice of a hollow hemisphere, 
(where is the other hemisphere ?), with the sun, moon, 
and stars moving over it. So the sun seems to us to be 
among the stars. The stars are really very much far- 
ther away than the sun. If the school-i'oom were dome- 
shaped, we might imagine its walls to be the sky for our 
balls. Let us try to do so. 



32 METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 

Let the earth revolve round the edge of the card-board 
(keeping conditions of axis, etc.)- 

Pupils (imagining the great distance) tell where, on the 
walls, the sun might seem to be, as seen from the revolv- 
ing earth. (Perhaps near certain pictures on the walls, 
taken as stars.) 

The paih in which the earth moves round the sun is called 
its orbit. 

The card-board represents an imaginary flat surface, pass- 
ing through the centres of both sun and earth, on which 
this path or orbit lies. This imaginary surface is called 

the plane of the orbit < ^ ' ^. ' ^ ' ; 
-^ -^ ( Imagmary plane. 

Then the sun seems to move among the stars in the sky, 
because the earth really moves among them. 

As the pictures on the walls have names, so groups of stars 
have names, because long ago people thought they 
could find pictures in the stars. One group was 
called a great bear, or a great dipper (who ever heard 
of that in the sky ?) ; another a dog ; another a warrior 
with his belt and sword (did any one ever see Orion on a 
beautiful winter night ?), etc. 

One of these groups of stars was called Cancer (a crab) ; 
and as the sun seemed then to be in this group of stars 
when overhead, to people on the northern tropic, we have 
the name Tropic of Cancer. (No attempt need be made 
to show the present distinction between constellations and 
signs of the zodiac.) 

When the sun was overhead to the people on the southern 
tropic, he seemed to be among the stars that form the 
group called Capricornus (the goat) ; and so we have the 
name Tropic of Capricorn. 

The north pole of the earth points to a group of stars 
called Arctos (the bear), and so we have the name Arctic 
Circle. 

The opposite polejs named Anti (or opposite) the Arctic ; 
and so we have the name Antarctic Circle. 

Tropical has come to mean hot, and Arctic to mean cold or 
frigid. 



METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 33 

7. Zones. 

The tropics and polar circles mark the earth off 

into belts or zones. Find them on the map. 
Between the tropics — the hot or Torrid Zone. 
The rainy and dry seasons. When? Why? 
Between the tropics and polar circles — the two 
Temperate Zones. 

Four seasons — The most favorable conditions 
for civilization. 
Between the poles and polar circles — the two 
Arctic or Frigid Zones. 

Short summers — long winters. 

Lead pupils to observe the difference in the daily path of 
the sun, from month to month, and to report it. To 
observe also the difference in time and direction of the 
sun's rays coming through a school-room window at dif- 
ferent seasons. Also the greater heat of noontime rays 
than of the morning or evening rays — Of summer than 
of winter rays. 

Give or read some vivid description of the long winter 
night in northern regions, with its auroras, etc. ; then 
the gradual return of the sun ; first a long twilight, then 
a peep of sunlight; then lengthening days, till the sun 
does not set. Then the gradual decline of sunlight into 
night again. 

Poem " Bidding the Sun good-night in Lapland," by Joy 
Allison. 

8. Difference in Time from Difference in Longitude. 

Did you ever hear that a traveller finds his watch wrong 
when he arrives at a place east or west from his starting- 
point? 

We can now find out why this is so. Let us put a wafer 
on our globe M'here London is, another where Boston is. 
Put both places on the dark side. Rotate the globe. 
Raise your hands when the sun rises on one of these 
places — which? Now the London clocks should show 
sunrise time. Should the Boston clocks show time be- 
fore or after sunrise ? 



34 METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 

If a watch, right for London time, were brought here, 

would it be too fast or too slow ? 
If a Boston watch were carried to London, would it be too 

fast or too slow? Wli}^? 
Compare Boston and San Francisco time. 
Compare Boston and Chicago time. 
Can we find out how much too slow or too fast these 

watches would be? 
What do we know about the time of the earth's rotation? 
What do we know about the number of degrees in every 

parallel? 
What do we call distance east or west on the earth? 
Who can solve this problem : If a place on any parallel 

rotates in 24 hours (makes the whole circle, or 360°), 

through how many degrees would it rotate in one 

hour? 
Then how many degrees of longitude would make an hour's 

difference in time? 
Now find for yourselves difference in time between severa 

places. 



V. Winds — Currents of Air. 

1. Why consider winds? Because they are the great 
modifiers of climate. 
What is air? 

We have an envelope of air (the atmosphere) around 

the earth, more than 100 miles deep. It differs in 

density — heavy near the earth — lighter as it is 

higher above the surface. 

(Illustration — Difficulty in breathing on a high mountain.) 

Air becomes lighter by taking watery vapor. 
Barometer, as measure of pressure or weight of the air. 
As indicator of a storm coming. 

Air becomes lighter (expands) by being heated. 
(Illustration. — Hot air rising over a fire — upward 
draught.) 



METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRArHT. 35 

2. Why is the atmosphere restless ? Why winds? 

Experiment. — Warm school-room — cool corridor — light- 
ed candle held in the door-way. Candle at top of the 
door-way, flame blows toward the corridor. Candle at 
bottom of the door-way, flame blows toward the room. 

Two currents of air in opposite directions ; the lower a cold 
current — a surface-draught or wind. 

These currents are caused by a difference of -temperature 
in the room and corridor. The hot ^ir rises, and cold 
air flows in to supply its place. 

3. Breezes at seashore in the summer. 

During the day the land and the air over it are hotter than 
the surface of water and the air over it. 

What kind of breeze? Sea breeze. 

{Note. — Wind always named by the direction from which 
it blows.) 

During the night and early morning, a land breeze. Why? 

Inference. — Winds are caused by differences of tem- 
perature. 

Direction of wind shown by weather-vane, drifting clouds, 
smoke. 

4. Trade winds. Origin. Direction. 

What do we know about diflerences of temperature on the 
earth? What parts always hot? What parts always 
cold? What, then, can we say about currents? Always 
currents of cold air blowing from the polar regions 
toward the equator. Always hot air rising over the hot 
regions, and passing off toward the cold regions. 

If the earth did not rotate, these polar winds would blow in 
the direction of the meridians. But the atmosphere 
rotates with the earth, — that over the polar parts, 
slowly; that over the hot parts, rapidly. 

What happens, then, to a stream of air coming from the 
north polar region toward the equator? Can it move in 
a north and south line? 

It has less speed of rotation than the parts of the earth 
over which it passes, so it falls more and more behind 
the meridian on which it started. It falls westward, or 



METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 

blows more and more from the eastward, as places 
farther south rotate under it. 

So it is successively a north, north-east, and finally an 
east wind in the torrid zone. 

What happens to a similar stream of air starting from the 
south polar regions? 

Then in the Torrid Zone there is a nearly constant east 
wind. Before the days of steam ships the world's com- 
merce depended so much on this wind that it was named 
the Trade Wind. 

Think why the "Windward islands" and "Leeward 
islands" were so named by sailors. 



5. Return currents. 

AVhat becomes of the heated air that rose over the hot 

regions? 
Where would air be needed? 
Would this heated air, rising, be felt on the surface of the 

earth as a wind? 
Would it get cooled? How? What then? 
'What would be its speed of rotation? 
How, then, would it blow over the northern hemisphere? 

(Our pleasant S.W. winds.) 
How over the southern hemisphere? 
These are sometimes called the return trades. These winds 

bring abundant moisture to Western Europe, to the 

Pacific coast of North America, and to the coast of Chili. 



6. Zone of calms. 

Over the most heated equatorial belt the air is constantly 
rising in an upward current. 

Would there be a surface wind? 

This, then, is the Zone of Calms that sailors dread, (Read 
from " The Ancient Mariner.") Sudden gusts, hurricanes, 
etc., occur, however, for the upper current is often dis- 
turbed. 

It does not correspond exactly with the equator, because 
the land-masses make the temperature highest a little 
north of the equator. 



METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 37 

7. Monsoons. — Season winds. 

During the northern summer the great land masses of 
Southern Asia become so heated that the air rises, and 
currents from the Indian Ocean blow in — called the 
South-west Monsoon. During the southern summer the 
reverse liappens, from the great heat of the African 
lands, and tliere is a Nortli-tast Monsoon. 

These winds are felt in the northern part of the Indian 
Ocean and the adjacent parts of the Pacific. 

8. Variable winds. 

The temperate zones have frequent changes of winds, and 
the winds blow from every direction, as we know. The 
polar winds and the return currents are, however, the 
prevailing winds. 

9. Winds as purifiers, etc. 

Winds as purifiers of the earth's surface. 
" " distributers of moisture. 
*' intercepted by mountain ranges. 



Ocean Currents. 

The trade winds, the great evaporation within the topics, and 

the difference of temperature between the equatorial and 

polar regions determine these. 
After teaching winds, the causes and course of the currents are 

easily taught. Folar, Equatorial, Return Currents. 
Then follow on a map the currents of the different oceans. 
Show advantages. 
Show effects of Gulf Stream — climate of Western Europe, 

storms, fogs, driftwood. 
Take imaginary voyages, and let the class decide upon winds and 

currents that would help or hinder. 
4 



THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE CON- 
TINENTS. 



When the foundations for the stud}' of physical geography" 
are laid, a class is ready to take up the examination of the 
physical character of each grand division. Application 
should be made constantly of the knowledge gained of the 
distribution of solar heat, and of winds, currents, etc., as 
the modifiers of climate. 

The comparison and contrast of the physical conditions of 
the different grand divisions will give the repetition necessary 
to make this preparatory knowledge permanent. 

OUTLINE FOR THE STUDY OF THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF A 
GRAND DIVISION. • 

I. Position on the Globe. 

Hemisphere. 
Zones. 

Crossed by what circles? Where? 
Limits as to latitude and longitude. 
Position relative to other Grand Divisions. 
Surrounding waters. 
Land boundaries. 

II. Size. 

Relative to the other Grand Divisions. 
Area — in round numbers. 

m. Shape. 

General form. 

Outline — regular or irregular. Compared with that of 
Grand Divisions previously studied. 



METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 39 

{Projections. 
Indentations. 
Border Islands. 
Outline drawn as a part of the study of shape, not from 

memory at first. 
Practice in map-drawing as the study proceeds. When 
construction lines are used let them be derived from the 
map, and let the climatic circles that cross the Grand 
Division appear on the map. 



IV. Surface. 

f Position of Mountain Systems. 

I Direction. 

I Kanges. 
■tr. , 1 , (Primary. Highest Peaks (see note). 
Highlands. I Secondary. ] Volcanoes. ^ ^ 

I Plateaus. 
(Best studied by the use | Height and extent (see note), 
of a moulding-board.) [Slopes. 

T ^,xri„^^o / Plains — fertile or desert. 
Lowlands. I ^^,^^y^^ 

Striking scenery. 

Profiles drawn. 

Mountain systems indicated on the outline map. 

Comparison with Grand Divisions previously studied. 



V. Drainage. 

Water-partings and Water-sheds, {g^'^^^f^^^^ ^^^^^^ 

-r,- 1 • r Limits of. 
Kiver basins. { ^^ ■, .- • / . x 

Relative size (see note). 

f Source. 
j Direction. 

Main Stream and Tributaries. 
{ Moutli, Delta, Estuary, etc. 

Characteristics. I ^'''^"^^^^^^«^"^^- 
[ \ Scenery. 

Lakes — Location. < ^-,' ", 
\ iresh. 

Principal Rivers and Lakes indicated on the outline map. 

Comparison with Grand Divisions already studied. 

Note. — (Memorize very few exact measm-ements. Compare others with Iht-He 
standards.) 



40 METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 

VI. Climate. 

Temperature of different parts inferred from Position on the 

Earth. 
Variations in Seasons, and in length of Days and Nights in 

the different parts. 

Modifications of. < , ,tt. , " -, r^ 

\ by Winds and Currents. 

Moisture or dryness of different parts. 

Healthfulness of diflferent parts. 

Comparison of Coast with Interior. 

Comparison with Grand Divisions already studied. 

VII. Life. 

fOf different parts, inferred from f Wild, 
Vegetable. J climate. J Cultivated, 

Animal. i Special for different regions. 1 or 

[^Peculiar to the Grand Division. [Domestic. 

TT f People of different parts. 

Human. i o at t /-.• 'i- i 

(^ Savage — JNomadic — Civilized. 

Compared and contrasted with other Grand Divisions, 

VIII. Regions adapted to — - 

Mining or Quarrying — Resources of each. 
Agriculture or Grazing, 
Manufactures. 
Commerce or Trade. 

IX. Good Positions for important Cities — Natural Advan- 

tages. 

X. Topical Review — oral and written — w^ith Map drawn 

from Memory. 



POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



Having studied and compared the plivsical conditions of 
the Grand Divisions, a class is prepared to take the study of 
the countries of each, with special reference to the life of 
their inhabitants. Pupils can now be led to perceive that 
varied physical features give the opportunity for varied in- 
dustries and a higher degree of civilization. They will see 
that natural barriers are often the boundaries between 
countries. 

This study of the people of the earth will naturally be 
preceded by the consideration of their division into races, 
states of society, different forms of government and religion, 
with the characteristics of each. 

If the usual arrangement of text-books be followed, the 
detailed study of North America will be taken first ; that of 
South America next; and then the countries of the Old 
World will be studied. This seems, at first, the natural 
order ; but, in this Second Course of lessons, there, are ad- 
vantages in taking the study of the civil geography of the 
New World after that of Europe. When our pupils have 
learned the national traits of Spaniards, Portuguese, Dutch, 
English, and French, they are interested in finding them 
transplanted into the lauds that are or have ])een colonies of 
European nations. They will anticipate the social conditions, 
and will readily trace for themselves the descent of the in- 
habitants by the names on a map. 

We can easily lead them to see why the nations of Southern 
Europe were early navigators ; and how naturally the course 
of discovery was along the African coast, till India, long 



42 METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 

known, had been reached by water ; and that the hope of 
reaching it sooner, by sailmg westward, led Columbus to the 
discovery of America. 

As the geography of countries is closely associated with 
the stud}^ of their iiistory, so historical links should be made 
in studying political geography. Experience has proved that 
there is both economy of time and increase of interest for a 
class, when the special study of Europe precedes that of the 
political divisions of- the New World. The following order 
of study is therefore suggested : — 

The Countries (1) of Europe — (2) of North America — 
(3) of South America — (4) of Asia — (5) of Africa — (6) 
Australia ; Mala3^sia, and other islands of the Pacific. 

METHOD OF STUDY FOR THE COUNTRIES OP A GRAND DIVISION. 

I. A general Review of the physical Features of the G-rand 

Division, with Map-draw^ing from Memory. 

The names, relative position and size of its countries — 
Historical points — Settlements. 

Map-drawing of a country, as the study proceeds, in the 
manner indicated for the study of New England, in 
the first course. (With or without the use of a mould- 
ing-board.) Rapid sketches from memory of maps of 
the most important countries, and of sections of the 
United States, so far only as time will permit Avithout 
abridging the descriptive geography. Practice-maps will 
be important aids in the study and review. 

II. Study of a Country. 

Position in the Grand Division — Boundaries. 
Character of the coast-line, if any. 

TAVhat mountain system, if any, crosses it? 
,e__^ J Ranges — High peaks — Scenery — Resources. 
csuna-ee. ^ j)!^^^^.^^^ j^j^^jg ^f surface — Adapted to. 

Rivers — Lakes — Useful for? 



Climate. 



'Inferred from position on the earth. 

Modified by Relief, Winds, Ocean Currents. 

Moisture, Dryness, Healthfulness — of different parts 
_ Compared with that of the other countries. 



Inhabitants 



Occupations. 



METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 43 

Vegetation — wild and cultivated — products of different parts. 

Animal Life — wild and domestic — special or peculiar. 

f Races — Languages — Government. 

Religion — Education — Customs and Manners. 

Agricultural — Staples. 

Mining — Products. 

Fishing. 

I Manufactures — Kinds of? Where ? 

rn 1 J nf (Exports — where sent? 

Trade and Commerce. < t 4. 1 1 4. • jo 

(^Imports — where obtamed? 

Population — Avhere sparse — where crowded? Why? 
Important cities and towns — situation — natural advan- 
tages. 
I Description of the most prominent city or cities. 

The best way to review and strengthen the elementary- 
knowledge of astronomical and physical geography, pre- 
viously acquired, is to apply it as the study of countries pro- 
ceeds. Such of these questions as are appropriate will 
recall it. 

Does any part of this country have a vertical sun? If so, 

what part? Why? 
What do you know of the change of seasons in this country? 

Compare a winter and a summer day at city. 

What other cities of the world (or what cities of countries 

recently studied) are in about the same latitude? 
How do they compare with this city in climate and industries? 
Do any of these cities have noon at about the same time? 
How does the time of day at city compare with our 

time ? 
Does any part of this country have the trade wind? 
What are the prevailing Avinds? Why? 

Which slope of the mountains has the more moisture? Why? 
Which plants, belonging to the zone, are not found in this 

country? Why? 
Which animals, belonging to the zone, are not found here? 

Why? 



44 METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 

For Revieio. — Take imaginary, journey's describing the 
scenery and resources of the region travelled over — 
the cities passed through. 

Trace the great railroad lines, if any. 

Take an imaginary journey for business. 

Note important historical points — colonies — foreign 
possessions, if any. 

When the study of the countries of a Grand Division is 
completed, the reading of one of the " Geographical 
Plays for Schools," will give an excellent review, and 
furnish material for topical recitation, oral and written. 

The time given to the study of the countries must 
depend upon their relative importance. Our own 
country and the countries of Europe will need more 
time than the countries of any other grand division. 



A SKETCH FOR THE STUDY OF THE COUNTRIES OF AFRICA 
(second course), in CONTINUATION OF THAT GIVEN FOR 
THE FIRST COURSE. 

North Africa. 

1. Position just north of the tropic of Cancer. — Climate 
sub-tropical — wet and dr}^ seasons — irrigation often 
necessary. — Mountains along the coast, declining in height 
eastward. — Date, gum, and cypress trees, and aromatic 
plants ("Land of Dates"). — Lion, gazelle, hyena, 
jackal. 

2. Some reference to the prominent place of North Afri- 
can nations in ancient times : half-buried pedestals (Car- 
thage) ; hieroglyphics ; pyramids ; ruins of old Egyptian 
civilization. — Mohammed. — Conquest and permanent occu- 
pation of North Africa by Arabs. — Religion. — Koran. — 
Two classes of inhabitants : (1) dwellers in cities ; (2) pas- 
toral tribes. — Customs. — Description of Cairo, as a repre- 
sentative Mohammedan city, — architecture, bazaars, shops, 



METHODS OF TEACHINa GEOGRAPHY. 45 

baths, mosques, etc. — Caravans. (See Laue's "Modern 
Egyptians " ; Bayard Taj'lor's " Lands of the Saracen.") 

3. Barbary States — names — government — French pos- 
session of Algeria. Cities. — -Few manufactures, morocco 
and leather, silk and woollens. — Exports — oil, dates, nuts, 
sponge. 

4. Valley of the Nile — course of the river — country 
during the overflow — irrigation b}^ canals — villages — the 
whole population along the river — condition of the country 
people — government. Products — grain, cotton, beans. 
No forests — clusters of palms around villages — lotus, 
papyrus, etc., in canals. (See "Egypt," by Stanley Lane- 
Poole; "Egypt and Nubia," by J. A. St. John.) Suez 
canal. — Late war in Egypt — causes of. 

Sahara and Soudan. 

1. Sahara — a vast desert, equal in area to the whole of 
Europe, extending across the continent, from the Atlantic to 
the Red Sea, interrupted only b}^ the narrow strip fertilized 
by the Nile — consists of large sandy tracts, rocky ridges, 
and a few oases. Crossed by the tropic, long under a 
vertical sun, with winds coming over the land to a warmer 
region, and hence dry. Rainless, except where occasional 
elevations cool the air and condense the moisture. Around 
these heights fertility and verdure. Caravans — Bedouins.. 

2. Soudan — the meeting-ground of Arabs and Negroes. — 
A great, open plain, fertile and populous — patches of 
forest ; pasture lands ; tracts of wild rice, indigo, cotton, 
sugar-cane, millet, etc., with clusters of palms, acacias, 
tamarind-trees, and the great baobab. Ridges of hills, and 
a succession of shallow lakes or ponds often encrusted with 
natron (carbonate of soda), an important article of com- 
merce. Herds of elephants, antelopes, and giratfes. 

Provinces under Mohammedan governors. — Many negro 
villages, and, across the country, a line of large cities, 



46 METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 

trading centres, in which the square, flat-roofed houses of 
the Arabs, and the round, thatched huts of the negroes, stand 
side by side. Description of Kano as a representative city. 
(See Barth, " Travels and Discoveries in North and Central 
Africa," Vol. III., or Schweinfurth's " Heart of Africa.") 
The natives, the most advanced of the negro tribes, have a 
few manufactures ; keep cattle ; and cultivate a little cotton, 
grain, and manioc. Caravans from the North bring Arab 
clothing (shawls, bernouses, etc.), knives, guns, silk, and 
salt; and carry back natron, ivory, honej^, wax, and slaves. 
The Abyssinian plateau — nominally independent. 

Almost Unexplored Region. 

1. South of Soudan, the equatorial region of ti'ade-winds, 
rains, large rivers (Congo, the largest) and lakes (the head- 
waters of the Nile). Thick tropical forests with lions, ele- 
phants, zebras, antelopes, rhinoceri. Numerous streams 
with crocodiles and hippopotami ; swarms of locusts ; mound- 
building termites ; the tsetse-fly ; and, among the hills, apes, 
gorillas, and other large species of the monkey tribe. 

Farther south, areas of swamps and grass lands subject to 
overflow; with scattered gum-trees, euphorbias, etc., in 
place of the rich tropical forests. — ^ Valley of the Zambesi 
river. 

2. All this interior region inhabited by uncivilized 
tribes of negroes, and but little known. — Some account of 
recent explorers. — Condition and customs of natives — 
houses — occupations. (See Livingstone's " South Africa," 
and later books; Stanley's " Across the Dark Continent.") 
Some well-known tribes ; as Ashantees, Kaflirs, Hottentots. 

West and East Coasts. 
"West Coast. — Mountain chains, — not very high, parallel 
with the coast. A strip of low coast lauds, hot, moist, and 
unhealthful ; with a desert region, corresponding in position 



METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 47 

in South America. 
Crossed by rivers, which deposit sand bars at their mouths. 
Tall palms rise above the luxuriant forests and mangrove 
jungle on the river banks. — Thatched huts of the natives. — 
Small trading towns at intervals, chiefly Portuguese and 
English. — Senegambia, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea, 
where? — Rice, peanuts, sugar-cane, etc., cultivated; some 
coffee plantations among the hills. — Exports : oil, peanuts, 
gold-dust from the river sands ; with ivory, ostrich feathers, 
and beeswax brought by native traders from the interior. 

East coast very much like the west, but Mohammedans, 
rather than English, in the towns. — The highest mountains 
along this coast. 

South Africa. 

The region of the tropic of Capricorn is marked by the 
Kalahari desert ; long droughts ; want of water. 

South of Orauge river, ridges running east and west. 
Tracts of " bush," or fleshy, spiny plants — aloes, etc. ; also 
bulbous plants of great beaut\^, and a variety of heaths, — 
all characteristic of dry climates. — Upland grazing. — Com- 
munity of Dutch Boers. — Gold and diamond mines. — Brief 
account of Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope. 
— Settlement by the Dutch. — Possession by the English. — 
Recent political troubles. — Ports. -^ Cape Town. — Eliza- 
beth. — Graham-Town. — Exports : wool, wine, grain. — 
Description of towns, vegetation, animals, and modes of 
travel, '* Cape-wagons." (See Livingstone's " South Africa," 
and " Seven years in South Africa," by Dr. Holub.) 



GENERAL REVIEW, WITH FURTHER ATTENTION 
TO IMPORTANT POINTS. 



When the countries of the earth have been studied, in the 
manner suggested, a class should have gathered facts enough 
concerning both ph^'sical and civil geography to make a 
final consideration of the whole subject both interesting and 
instructive. 

This review should be, not so much a rehearsal of knowl- 
edge already acquired, as a comparison and classification of 
that knowledge, during which new points will be presented 
and new inferences made. 

Such^a review will naturally begin with the relation of our 
earth to the solar system, or with 

Astronomical Geography. 

More or less of the points suggested can be taught, accord- 
ing to the interest and preparation of the class. 

If the whole conception is clear to, the teacher, these 
points can be very simply presented. In some grammar 
schools all these points are taught with great clearness, and 
are responded to hy the classes with much interest. Such 
teaching gives to the many pupils, who do not go on to the 
study of astronomy in higher schools, a life-long habit of 
observing the daily and yearly phenomena of the heavens. Like 
all conceptions, that are based upon observation, these points 
are most readily received by pupils who have not passed beyond 
the grammar-school age, and they are therefore the surest 
foundation for advanced study. The memorizing of facts 
and dependence upon diagrams, without the conception by 



METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 49 

the pupils of the celestial phenomena caused by the earth's 
motions, will result only in confusion. 

Note the relative position and sizes of the planets, taking the earth 
as a standard. 

The supposed condition of the sun, as the source of light and heat, 
and of the stars. 

The former belief that the earth was at rest in the centre, and the 
apparent motions real. 

Observations of the apparent movements of sun, moon, and stars 
encouraged, and reported upon from time to time. 

The class will be able to pass from the simple illustrations 
already given of the earth's motions and of their effects, to 
the conception of the imaginary celestial sphere, and of the 
apparent movements upon its concave surface. Such ques- 
tions as these may lead to it : — 

If we should stand where our horizon was unbroken, how would the 
sky appear tt) us ? 

Where would a person stand to see the other celestial hemisphere ? 

Imagine a vertical line extended to meet this celestial sphere — the 
points of meeting would be ? Point to the zenith — the nadir. 

Draw the horizon-circle in the air. 

Imagine the earth's axis prolonged to meet the celestial sphere. 

Suppose an observer at the north pole of the earth — where would the 
prolonged axis meet his celestial sphere ? What star would be in his 
zenith ? 

Suppose an observer at the equator — where would the pole 
star be? 

Suppose an observer 10° north of the equator — where would he 
see the pole star? 

Where in our sky is the pole star? 

Then to what does its altitude correspond? 

Imagine our semi-meridian extended to the sky. 

Describe it in the air, passing from the north point of the horizon, 
through the pole star and the zenith, to the south point of the horizon. 

Imagine the earth's equator extended to the sky — how much of it 
above our horizon? 

On which side of the zenith does it cross our meridian? How far 
from the zenith? 

Describe it in the air, beginning at the east point of the horizon. 
5 



50 METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 

Think of the Tropic of Cancer in relation to the equator — describe 
its position, if extended to meet our sky. The same for the Tropic of 
Capricorn. 

On what circle of the celestial sphere does the sun apparently move 
on the 21st of March? 

Then describe the sun's path to an observer on the equator, on 
that day. 

Describe the sun's path through our sky on that day. 

When doesthe sun apparently move over the Tropic of Cancer? 

Describe his path through our sky on that day. 

Describe his path through our sky when vertical at the Tropic of 
Capricorn. 

Describe the sun's daily path at each of these dates from different 
points of observation — on or near the equator — on or near the north 
pole — on the Arctic circle. 

Describe the movement of the sun during the period of continuous 
day just north of the Arctic circle — the different plafie of the mid-day 
and midnight sun, and of sunrise and sunset through the year. 

Illustrate the greater heat of rays falling vertically than of rays 
obliquely — more rays on a given space, less atmosphere traversed, 
when falling vertically. 

Find the cause of the long twilight in high latitudes. 
Describe midwinter in high latitudes, auroras, etc. 

The sun's apparent course among the stars daring a year marks a 
great circle on the celestial sphere, inclined 23^<> to the celestial 
equator, and called the ecliptic, because eclipses occur if the moon, 
when new or full, is on or near this circle. 

The sun's apparent movement north and south of the equator, as it 
becomes vertical to every place within the tropics, is called its motion 
in declijiatinn. This corresponds to latitude on the earth. (See 
almanac for sun's declination.) 

State clearly the three causes of the sun's apparent motion through 
a year. 

Describe the sun's apparent motion in declination from March 20th 
to June 21st. From June to September. 

Terms Equinox and Solstice — how applied ? 



METHODS OP TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 51 

The sun is said to be in the signs Aries, Cancer, Capricorn, etc. 
(See almanac.) What is meant ? 

Note. — Joslin's *♦ Solar Telluric Globe " illustrates these points and many others 
very clearly. 

Relation of Time to Longitude. 

Pupils now understand that rotation brings all the meridians under 
the sun every twenty-four hours, or that noon travels westward round 
the earth, at the rate of 15° in an hour. 

Mariners sailing westward round the earth lose a day ; and sailing 
eastward gain a day. They must correct their reckoning in each case. 

By common consent sailors now change their day in longitude 180° 
from Greenwich. This meridian passes over the Pacific ocean, and 
crosses scarcely any land; so it is a convenient longitude for the 
change of day. 

Further practice in determining the difference in local time at two 
places ; their difference in longitude being given and vice versci. 

The Tidal Wave. 

A result of Rotation, and of the unequal attraction of the 
sun and moon on different parts of the earth. 

The moon the chief tide-producing force. Particles of water free 
to respond to the attracting force ; hence the tidal wave. 

Spring tides occur when ? 

Neap tides occur when? Why? 

The form of the coast-line as affecting the height and time of the 
tide. 

Winds — Ocean-Currents — Climate — Flora — Fauna. 

If the elementary knowledge of these topics has been 
applied, as the study of the Grand Divisions proceeded, 
pupils will be ready now for a more general treatment of 
them. 

Let the class trace long voyages, and decide where the winds and 
currents would be favorable, and where unfavorable. What changes 
of climate would be met. 

Follow the course of famous explorers, and inquire into the different 
physical conditions they found. 

Compare climates in the same latitudes, and show why isotliermal 
lines do not correspond with the parallels. 



52 METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 

Consider the effect of climate upon the life of the inhabitants of dif- 
ferent countries. 

Compare the vegetation and animals of different grand divisions 
within the tropics. Account for the contrasts. 

Mark out belts of vegetation, corresponding with the distribution of 
heat and moisture. These broadly stated, and with many local ex- 
ceptions, are — 

An equatorial forest belt, on both sides of the equator, in a 

region of great heat and moisture. 
A desert belt, corresponding with each tropic, where the sun is 
vertical longer than elsewhere, and there is more dryness 
with the great heat. 
A transition region of pasture or grass lands, between these 

belts, in each hemisphere. 
Another transition region of grass lands, in each hemisphere, 

beyond the desert belts. 
A temperate forest belt, in each hemisphere, where the return 
trades prevail. A great variety of deciduous trees, the species 
varying with the increasing latitude. 
A belt of mosses and lichens in each hemisphere, between the 
temperate forests and the polar regions of ice and snow. 
Trace the correspondence in vegetation between the base and sum- 
mit of a high mountain in the torrid zone, and between the equator 
and the poles. 

Trace the lines of volcanic action, and connect their nearness to the 
ocean with the present theory of volcanic action. 

The representation on outline maps of the direction of winds and 
currents, of the place of important productions, characteristic animals, 
etc., will be the surest means of fixing this knowledge, though there 
will not be time for much memory-work of this kind. One outline for 
climatic lines, another for direction of winds, another for productions, 
etc., will give clear impressions, which cannot be gained from pub- 
lished maps where all these points are crowded within one outline. 

The Work of Water. 

On the Surface and Underground. 

RevicAv observation lessons on evaporation, condensation, 
mist, fog, clouds (different kinds), rain. 

The distribution of rain depends upon the phj^sical features 
of a country and the prevailing winds. Mountain sides re- 



METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 53 

ceive much rain, because the air, blowing up the slope, is 
chilled and deposits its moisture. Many mountains have a 
moist and a dry side, according to the direction of the wind. 

Table-lands surrounded by mountains have little rain. 

What becomes of the rain ? Part of it flows off into the 
streams and rivers. Part of it sinks below the surface. The 
underground rain-water sinks through porous soils (sand- 
beds, sandstones, etc.) and through cracks in the rocks ; but 
it cannot penetrate clay -beds, etc., and flows along under 
ground till it finds an outlet and forms a spring. 

Rain, falling through the atmosphere, takes up carbonic 
acid gas from the air (we breathe it into the air) , and carries 
it under ground, where it helps to dissolve (we say acids eat) 
the mineral substances, and thus we have mineral springs. 

The salt of the sea comes from the salt dissolved out of the 
rocks. 

Under-ground water forms caves by gradually dissolving 
the rock-particles and remoAdng them. 

Rain, flowing over the ground, dissolves the rock-par- 
ticles, and the surface rocks gradually crumble into soil. 
Rain-water, freezing in the rocks, makes them crack. We 
get soil from the surface rocks mainly by the action of water. 
Different rocks make different soils, some more fertile than 
others. Plants, growing in and decaying on the soil, help to 
form more soil. 

Observation lessons from a wayside pool and from a hill- 
side road, after a heavy shower, will give many points. 

Water finds out the lowest levels, all the irregularities of 
the surface, and brooks and rivers deepen their own chan- 
nels. 

Rock-material is carried by rivers to the sea. Terraces, 
deltas, ravines, and caiions are formed by the action of 
water. 

The coast-line is changed by the action of waves and tides.- 
Cliffs, bays, and caverns are the effects. 



54 METHODS OP TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 

Glaciers. 

Perpetual snow fields — motion down the slopes. — The 
pressed snow formed into ice. — River of ice (glacier) moving 
down the high valley. — River flowing from the melted end of 
the ice. — Moraines. — Crevasses. — Rock-scratches. — Ice- 
bergs broken from the end of glaciers which reach the coast. 

Coral Islands. 

In the torrid zone, chiefly in the Pacific and Indian 
oceans. 

Formed around the top of submarine mountains, therefore 
usually in the form of a ring. Indicate gradual sinking of 
the sea bottom. 

Reefs — Atolls. — the result of growth, not of building. 
The united skeletons of myriads of polyps. 

Mode of growth. Difference in the kinds of coral in the 

diflPerent heights of a reef. 
Illustrations. Specimens. 

Changes on the Earth's Surface. 

By loater in motion^ waves, tides, currents, rivers, glaciers, 
causing erosion, debris, transportation of rocks. 
By ivinds, drifting sands, etc. 
By volcanoes and earthquakes. 
By vegetation and animal life (coral islands) . 

Distribution of Land and Water. 

Land hemisphere — London about the centre. 

Water hemisphere — New Zealand about the centre. 

Northern hemisphere more land than water, the continents 
pointing southward. 

Old World stretching from east to west, nearly half round 
the globe. Mountain framework in the same direction. 

New World extending north and south. Mountain frame- 
work in the same direction. 

Inference — General outline corresponds to direction of mountain 
systems. (Draw mountain systems of a grand division.) 



METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 55 

Old World — vast northern plains. 
New World — vast central plains. 

The Grand Divisions compared as to 

Coast line — navigable rivers and lakes, climate. 

Agricultural regions and their products. 

Manufacturing regions and their products. 

Mining regions and their products. 

The great routes for trade and commerce traced. -, 

The probable cargoes of vessels from important ports given. 

The Course of Discovery and the Progress of Civilization. 

These topics will be specially interesting at the close of 
the study of the earth as the home of man — noting, 

The early civilizations in the valleys of the Nile, Tigris, and 
Euphrates. 

The early but isolated nations of India and China. 

Grecian and Roman civilization. (Pyramids, ruins of temples, 
palaces, etc., as evidences of early civilization.) 

Physical conditions for the spread of civilization in Europe — tem- 
perate climate, varied coast-line, accessible interior. 

DiflPerent nationalities there. 

Wonderful spread of Mohammedanism. 

The Crusades, — Marco Polo's travels, — bringing knowledge of Asia. 

Early maritime nations — Genoese — Portuguese. 

Discoveries on the coast of Africa. Prince Henry of Portugal. 

Search for a passage to India. 

Columbus — The New World — Vasco da Gama. 

Magellan's circumnavigation. 

Cortes and Pizarro — Ancient civilization in the New World. 

English, Dutch, and French discoveries and colonies. 

Russian America (Alaska). 

Cook's Voyages. Arctic Voyages. Explorations in Africa. 

Present colonial possessions of different nations. 

Recent Japanese civilization. 

Present facilities for communication throughout the civilized world. 



i 



( 



LIBRftRY OF CONGRESS 



NEW WALL' mlrS' 

Prepared expressly for School Use under the personal Supervision of 
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World on Meecator's Projection. 

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